“Women’s Studies are not just a branch of scholarship but a part of larger social movement”

-Andre Beteille

History of Feminism

Feminism is one of the oldest movements in global history. The main idea that this movement carries is to end gender discrimination. Feminist movement has changed and evolved through time. To understand the timeline of the feminist movement, the “wave” metaphor is used as the most common explanation of the feminist movement. Till now there has been four waves of feminism. The first wave of feminism emerged in the nineteenth and early twentieth century in the western world major focus on gaining basic legal rights for women. Their idea was to recognize women as a human and not as property. One of the most important goals of this movement was Suffrage – the right to vote in elections. The second wave of feminism demarcated the period from the 1960s to the late 1980s. When men left the workforce to join the defense force during the Second World War, women took over their roles in the public sector. After returning from war, women were fired from their positions and replaced by men. The second wave of feminism was a reaction to women returning to their roles as housewives and mothers after the end of the war. This movement focused both on private and public injustice. The third wave of feminism was the generation that had grown up with feminism. Feminist thought and culture were emerging and growing around the world. This wave focused on reproductive rights, sexual liberation, and inclusion of communities that were previously left out by previous waves. In this movement, other aspects of identity were recognized. This movement became more conscious of race and identified the neglected and ignored racial disparities within gender. The fourth wave of feminism is a newly emerging movement that uses digital tools, protests, movements, and campaigns as symbols for contention. They confront systematic racism, and casteism also focus on trans rights and disability rights (Delao, 2021). Social movements like the ‘Me Too’ became a platform for many women who spoke against social abuse and harassment. The idea was to empower sexually assaulted people through solidarity and empathy. The “Me Too” movement became viral on social media as a hashtag following the exposure of “Harvey Weinstein Sexual Abuse Allegations”. In India symbols of contention were raised in slogans, pamphlets, art, and dance forms in the Pinjra Tod movement, a collective of women students who are against the patriarchal regulation of hostel and PG accommodation. This movement challenges curfews, moral policing, and restrictions that were only applied in women’s hostels. In India, the development of feminism was almost similar to the West. The development started with radical movements such as student uprising, workers’ agitation, tribal movements, and anti-caste movements. The year 1979-80 witnessed many women’s organisations and campaigns that resisted dowry murders, custodial deaths, and rape, and domestic violence. The dichotomy of public and private was broken and “Personal became Political”.

Evolution of Feminist and Women’s Studies in India

It was during the early 19th and 20th centuries when women’s education markedly shifted to getting women into public spaces, and this period was accompanied by resistance, anxiety, persuasion, and willingness. In 1972, the Committee on the Status of Women in India was appointed by the government. The main aim of this committee was to make a report on the condition of women in India. Initially, there were only highlights of discrimination, general oppression, and unemployment. There was no particular focus on raising awareness about the various problems faced by women that take their roots from the harrows of the patriarchal structure. In 1974, the Committee on the Status of Women in India published a report – ‘Towards Equality’ that focused on the conditions of women in India with respect to health, social status, and political rights. The findings helped in the development of women’s studies during the 1980s; thus making Bethune College for Women in Calcutta Presidency the oldest women’s college in Asia. Savitribai Phule opened two schools for girls from all caste backgrounds in Western India, also becoming the first woman teacher in western India by the middle of the nineteenth century. Shreemati Nathi Damodar Thackersey Women’s University was founded in 1916 and became the first university in both India and South-East Asia. Indraprastha College for women in Delhi is the oldest women’s college at Delhi University. The Centre for Women’s Development Studies was the first women’s studies research institute in India. It stimulated the process that worked towards the constitutional goal of women’s equality and participation in all aspects of life.The research was encouraged, as it provided new perspectives in social science. Questions about the structure of the family were raised. These questions were raised through the freedom struggle and social reform phase. Political economy, household, and social reform became important pillars through which research on women was stimulated during the 1980s. In 1985, UGC mandated Women’s Studies through the creation of the Centre For Women’s Studies by implementing a scheme for Development in Indian Universities and Colleges. These Centres have been functioning for about two decades, since1986, and have succeeded in playing an Interventionist role through the initiation of gender perspective in many domains in the generation of knowledge; in the policy designs and practice, etc. The UGC, under the scheme, has been supporting thirty-four Centres for Women’s Studies and issued guidelines that emphasized research teaching feminist pedagogy across universities.

Personal Journey of Female Faculty

Prof. Rachna Johri, the director of Psychotherapy and Clinical Research and a professor in Ambedkar University in Delhi discusses how feminist scholarship has transformed the understanding of the discipline and pedagogical practices in university classrooms. With an auto-ethnographic flavor to her description, she provides a self-critical gaze on feminist pedagogy in Indian academia; how academic spaces have been altered after the turn to globalization and how the reach of feminist thought is still limited to these spaces (Johri, 2020). Professors mostly females who have identified themselves as feminists and are committed to feminist pedagogy score low marks in their evaluation compared to their male counterparts. Nancy Sommer is a lecturer and the Sosland Director of Expository Writing at Harvard. She discusses that teachers are compelled to pander to students’ tastes, thereby there is no space to adopt theoretically grounded innovative and progressive pedagogies. Such instances lead to the absence of women in academia, particularly of those who practice feminist pedagogy. Ellen C Carillo, a professor of English and writing coordinator at the University of Connecticut discussed in one of her articles – Feminist teaching/Teaching feminism how she received low marks from students in her evaluation who were skeptical about her teaching practices. She practiced feminist pedagogy outside women’s studies as she believes that if feminist pedagogy is only restricted to women’s studies the function of it being transformative will be then futile (Carillo, 2007). What is the purpose of feminist pedagogy and feminist studies if it empowers only those people who are open to feminist concerns and choose to take the course of women’s studies? In her evaluation, her teaching practice of “question asking” and “class discussion” was challenged and considered as no teaching at all.

Higher Education in India – Expanding Field or Shrinking Space?

Education in India is facilitated by the state. With the mark in Globalization and Neoliberalism, the facilitation of the state intersects through these junctures as well (Govinda, et al., 2020). Rachna Johri (2020), through her own personal reflection on education, raises questions about the space for feminism in academic space. In 2006 there was an increase in the composition of students as 27 percent of seats were reserved for scheduled caste and scheduled tribe. During the 1980s, the University Grants Commission and the Indian Council of Social Research created opportunities for women’s movements and feminist scholarship in higher education. By 2018, universities were offering Master’s degrees and Research degrees in women’s studies and gender studies. Despite these developments, Indian universities have been resistant to feminist scholars and studies. The Ministry of Human Resources released a report in 2018 according to which 36 percent of students in higher education enrolled in arts programs. Students who pursued degrees in Science, Technology, Business Administration, and Commerce are devoid of feminist thought (Johri, 2020, as cited in Ravindran, 2015). The structure of the society also matters in such cases; professional degrees are prioritized by the larger society as they claim to give job prospects in the future. These colleges are even different therefore there is a complete absence of feminist thought in such programs. Eventually, the same people fill the higher positions in administration with no discourse on gendering and women’s rights. Now, when it comes to liberal arts and social sciences, these fields are also not very open to the idea of feminist thought. Courses related to women’s and gender studies are provided as an elective rather than core courses therefore it becomes a choice whether one wants to engage in the feminist discourse or not. Furthermore, With an alien structure regarding feminist thought in higher education, it affects the lives of female faculty. Sarah Ahmad is a British writer whose work focuses on feminist theory, lesbian and queer theory, and post-colonialism. Her blog “Feminist killjoy” is famous for the complaints made by women in universities and administration that speak the uncomfortable but necessary truth. She says, “to work as a feminist means trying to transform the organization that employs us.” (Ahmed, 2016) Academic institutions are hostile towards women. The structure is built so that one can hardly find women in the position of authority in universities. Furthermore, when it comes to recruitment and promotion, visibility matters – men tend to publish more than women, they work on their professional development (Chanana, 2020). On the other hand, women have dual responsibilities that lie at work and at home causing restrictions on their professional development. There are also research groups, journals, and articles that are devoted to feminist research but the patriarchal academic environment does not consider them equally valuable compared to other philosophical journals thereby delegitimizing the work of feminist research (Jenkins, 2014). Even though there are so many difficulties in pursuing feminist pedagogy in the academy, it further gives us the reason to continue the task of rethinking feminism. Feminist studies are not just a theory – it is a movement, even if it means shaking the walls of the society that are the foundation of their existence (Ahmed, 2016).

References

• Ahmed, S. (2016). Resignation is a personal issue. Feminist Killjoys. Retrieved 23 March 2022, from http://feministkilljoys.com/2016/08/27/resignation-is-a-feminist-issue/.

• Anand, T. (2018). A Brief Summary Of The First Wave Of Feminism. Feminism In India. https://feminisminindia.com/2018/04/24/summary-first-wave-of-feminism/

• Anand, T. (2018). A Brief Summary Of The Second Wave Of Feminism. Feminism In India. https://feminisminindia.com/2018/04/25/summary-second-wave-of-feminism/

• Anand, T. (2018). A Brief Summary Of The Third Wave Of Feminism. Feminism In India. https://feminisminindia.com/2018/04/27/brief-summary-third-wave-of-feminism/

• Carillo, E. C. (2007). “Feminist” Teaching/Teaching “Feminism”. Feminist Teacher, 18(1).
• Chanana, K. (2020). Visibility, Gender and the career of women faculty in Indian University. Mcgill Journal Of Education.Delao, M. (2021,).

• A Brief Look at the Four Waves of Feminism – TheHumanist.com. TheHumanist.com. https://thehumanist.com/commentary/a-brief-look-at-the-four-waves-of-feminism/

• Feminism: The Third Wave. (2020). National Women’s History Museum. https://www.womenshistory.org/exhibits/feminism-third-wave

• Govinda, R., Mackey, F., Menon, K., & Sen, R. (2020). Doing Feminism in Academy. Zuban.

• Jenkins, K. (2014). That’s not philosophy: feminism, academia, and the double bind. Journal Of Gender Studies.

• Johri, R. (2020). Feminism in the Neo-Liberal University. Expanding Field and Shrinking Space. In R. Govinda, F. Mackey, K. Menon & R. Sen, Doing Feminism in Academy. Zubaan.
• Sarmin, U. (2018). ‘Pinjratod’: Indian women students’ movement against sexist university policies

• Portside, https://portside.org/2018-10-22/pinjratod-indian-women-students-movement-against-sexist-university-policies

• (n.d.). Welcome to UGC, New Delhi, India. https://www.ugc.ac.in/oldpdf/xplanpdf/womenstudiesindianuni.pdf
• ‘me too.’ Global Movement. (n.d.). Global Fund for Women. https://www.globalfundforwomen.org/movements/me-too/

Written By: Mayuri Gandha
About the Author
Mayuri Gandha is a Master’s student in Ambedkar University, Delhi. Her subject is Sociology. She is interested in Caste, Gender and Education. Currently she is working on her Dissertation that focuses on Caste Based Prejudice on Marginalized students in Academia. She has previously worked with organisation like SHODH and Human Rights Law Network as Research Intern. She believes that her education has exposed her to new horizons and made her capable to question the status quo. She wants to further her understanding by engaging herself in social sector and critically view situations through multiple lenses to achieve solution oriented goal.